The ASEAN cyber cooperation forming cybersecurity regime on human trafficking

Ibaadurrahman Azzahidi; Ali Muhammad

doi:10.31893/multiscience.2025393

Keywords:

ASEAN

Cyber security

Social sciences and humanities

Abstract

This study analyzes the effectiveness of cyber regimes in the ASEAN region in combating human trafficking, with a focus on human security aspects. Human trafficking is a serious threat that can damage human dignity and human rights, where the ASEAN region is one of the regions vulnerable to this crime. With the development of information and communication technology, human trafficking is now increasingly utilizing cyberspace, thus demanding a more sophisticated response from ASEAN countries. Through a qualitative approach, this study evaluates cyber policies and frameworks implemented by ASEAN countries, as well as how regional and international collaboration can strengthen efforts to prevent detection and prosecution of human trafficking in cyberspace. In addition, this study also reviews how ASEAN's cyber regime contributes to the protection of human security, especially in protecting vulnerable groups such as women and children. The results of this study indicate that although ASEAN has taken important steps in developing and building a cyber framework in combating human trafficking, challenges remain, especially in terms of coordination between countries, resources, and law enforcement. This study emphasizes the importance of enhancing cross-border cyber cooperation and strengthening the technical capacity of ASEAN member countries to create a safer environment and protect human rights from the threat of cybercrime.
References
1. Álvarez, J. G. (2022). The impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Human Trafficking. Esthinktank. https://esthinktank.com/2022/10/12/the-impact-of-information-and-communication-technologies-on-human-trafficking/
2. Alwan, H. B. (2019). National cyber governance awareness policy and framework. International Journal of Legal Information, 47(2), 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/jli.2019.22
3. ASEAN. (2015). ASEAN Plan of Action Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ASEAN-Convention-Against-Trafficking-in-Persons-Especially-Women-and-Children-Plan.pdf
4. ASEAN act. (2022). ASEAN Trafficking in Persons Data, Baseline Repor. https://www.aseanact.org/resources/baselinereport/
5. Australian Aid. (2024). Strengthening legal cooperation on transnational trafficking in persons cases. Australian Aid. https://www.aseanact.org/story/ilc-workshop/
6. Bouché, V. (2015). A Report on the Use of Technology to Recruit, Groom, & Sell Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victons. Thorn, January. https://www.thorn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Survivor_Survey_r5.pdf
7. Deibert, R. J. (2018). Toward a human-centric approach to cybersecurity. Ethics and International Affairs, 32(4), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679418000618
8. Dennis, M. A. (2019). Cybercrime: Definition, Statistics, & Examples. Britannica.Com; Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/cybercrime
9. Freetheslaves.net. (n.d.). Modern Slavery. Freetheslave.Net. Retrieved March 28, 2024, from http://www.freetheslaves.net/about-slavery/faqs-glossary/
10. Gallagher, A. T. (2009). Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Firm Ground? A Response to James Hathaway. Virginia Journal of International Law, 49(4). https://ssrn.com/abstract=1409816
11. Harknett, R. J., & Stever, J. A. (2011). The New Policy World of Cybersecurity. Public Administration Review, 71(3), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02366.x
12. Kaye, M. (2003). The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants’ Human Rights. Anti-Slavery International.
13. KOMINFO. (2020). Silabus Pelatihan Cyber Security for Government Balai Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi , Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia.
14. Lisa Denney, Alffram, H., Domingo, P., & Jesperson, S. (2024). ASEAN action on countering trafficking in persons and forced labour: Constraints and opportunities. Odi.Org. https://odi.org/en/publications/asean-action-on-countering-trafficking-in-persons-and-forced-labour-constraints-and-opportunities/
15. Martinus, M. (2024, February 20). Tackling technology abuse and human trafficking in ASEAN. Eastasiaforum. https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1708441200
16. Mcpherson, P. (2023). Trafficking for cyber fraud an increasingly globalised crime, Interpol says. Reuters; Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/cybersecurity/trafficking-cyber-fraud-an-increasingly-globalised-crime-interpol-says-2023-12-08/
17. Moore, R. (2010). Cybercrime: Investigating High -Technology Computer Crime. Routledge.
18. Peterson, M. J. (2012). International Regimes as Concept. E-International Relations, 1–6. https://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/21/international-regimes-as-concept/
19. Prakash, A., & Potoski, M. (2006). Racing to the Bottom? Trade, Environmental Governance, and ISO 14001. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00188.x
20. Putri, A. R., & Sari, V. P. S. P. (2021). ASEAN Consensus on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers sebagai Rezim Perlindungan Pekerja Migran Berketerampilan Rendah di ASEAN. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 3(2), 242. https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v3i2.33497
21. Rahayu, D. S., & Azzahidi, I. R. (2022). the Implementation of Cybersecurity in the United States Foreign Policy After the Russian Hack (2016-2020). Journal of International Relations, 48–61. https://unimuda.e-journal.id/jurnalhubunganinternasional/article/view/3476
22. Ramadhan, I. (2022). ASEAN Consensus and Forming Cybersecurity Regulation in Southeast Asia. August. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.31-3-2022.2320684
23. Reddick, J. (2023). Hundreds of thousands trafficked into cyber scamming in Southeast Asia, UN says. The Record Media. https://therecord.media/human-trafficking-cyber-slavery-asia-un-report
24. Reidenberg, J. (1996). Governing Network and Cyberspace Rule-making. Emory Law Journal, 45(3), 911.
25. Rizal, M., & Yani, Y. (2016). Cybersecurity Policy and Its Implementation in Indonesia. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 4(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v4i1.967
26. Sassen, S. (2000). Women’s Burden: Counter-geographies of Globalization and the Feminization of Survival. Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board, 52(2), 503–524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357763
27. Setiyawan, A. (2019). NATIONAL CYBERSECURITY POLICY IN THE U.S AND INDONESIA. UNTAG Law Review, 3(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.36356/ulrev.v3i1.1071
28. Tay, K. L. (2023). ASEAN Cyber-security Cooperation: Towards a Regional Emergency- response Framework. The International Institute or Strategic Studies, June, 6–7.
29. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. UNODC, 119–128. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_Chapter5.pdf
30. UNODC. (2019). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. In unodc.org. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking.html
31. Weiss, M. S. (2015). Human Trafficking and Forced Labor. ABA Journal of Labor & Employment Law, 31(1), 1–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26410780
32. Álvarez, J. G. (2022). The impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Human Trafficking. Esthinktank. https://esthinktank.com/2022/10/12/the-impact-of-information-and-communication-technologies-on-human-trafficking/
33. Alwan, H. B. (2019). National cyber governance awareness policy and framework. International Journal of Legal Information, 47(2), 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/jli.2019.22
34. ASEAN. (2015). ASEAN Plan of Action Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ASEAN-Convention-Against-Trafficking-in-Persons-Especially-Women-and-Children-Plan.pdf
35. ASEAN act. (2022). ASEAN Trafficking in Persons Data, Baseline Repor. https://www.aseanact.org/resources/baselinereport/
36. Australian Aid. (2024). Strengthening legal cooperation on transnational trafficking in persons cases. Australian Aid. https://www.aseanact.org/story/ilc-workshop/
37. Bouché, V. (2015). A Report on the Use of Technology to Recruit, Groom, & Sell Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victons. Thorn, January. https://www.thorn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Survivor_Survey_r5.pdf
38. Deibert, R. J. (2018). Toward a human-centric approach to cybersecurity. Ethics and International Affairs, 32(4), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679418000618
39. Dennis, M. A. (2019). Cybercrime: Definition, Statistics, & Examples. Britannica.Com; Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/cybercrime
40. Freetheslaves.net. (n.d.). Modern Slavery. Freetheslave.Net. Retrieved March 28, 2024, from http://www.freetheslaves.net/about-slavery/faqs-glossary/
41. Gallagher, A. T. (2009). Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Firm Ground? A Response to James Hathaway. Virginia Journal of International Law, 49(4). https://ssrn.com/abstract=1409816
42. Harknett, R. J., & Stever, J. A. (2011). The New Policy World of Cybersecurity. Public Administration Review, 71(3), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02366.x
43. Kaye, M. (2003). The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants’ Human Rights. Anti-Slavery International.
44. KOMINFO. (2020). Silabus Pelatihan Cyber Security for Government Balai Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi , Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia.
45. Lisa Denney, Alffram, H., Domingo, P., & Jesperson, S. (2024). ASEAN action on countering trafficking in persons and forced labour: Constraints and opportunities. Odi.Org. https://odi.org/en/publications/asean-action-on-countering-trafficking-in-persons-and-forced-labour-constraints-and-opportunities/
46. Martinus, M. (2024, February 20). Tackling technology abuse and human trafficking in ASEAN. Eastasiaforum. https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1708441200
47. Mcpherson, P. (2023). Trafficking for cyber fraud an increasingly globalised crime, Interpol says. Reuters; Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/cybersecurity/trafficking-cyber-fraud-an-increasingly-globalised-crime-interpol-says-2023-12-08/
48. Moore, R. (2010). Cybercrime: Investigating High -Technology Computer Crime. Routledge.
49. Peterson, M. J. (2012). International Regimes as Concept. E-International Relations, 1–6. https://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/21/international-regimes-as-concept/
50. Prakash, A., & Potoski, M. (2006). Racing to the Bottom? Trade, Environmental Governance, and ISO 14001. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00188.x
51. Putri, A. R., & Sari, V. P. S. P. (2021). ASEAN Consensus on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers sebagai Rezim Perlindungan Pekerja Migran Berketerampilan Rendah di ASEAN. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 3(2), 242. https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v3i2.33497
52. Rahayu, D. S., & Azzahidi, I. R. (2022). the Implementation of Cybersecurity in the United States Foreign Policy After the Russian Hack (2016-2020). Journal of International Relations, 48–61. https://unimuda.e-journal.id/jurnalhubunganinternasional/article/view/3476
53. Ramadhan, I. (2022). ASEAN Consensus and Forming Cybersecurity Regulation in Southeast Asia. August. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.31-3-2022.2320684
54. Reddick, J. (2023). Hundreds of thousands trafficked into cyber scamming in Southeast Asia, UN says. The Record Media. https://therecord.media/human-trafficking-cyber-slavery-asia-un-report
55. Reidenberg, J. (1996). Governing Network and Cyberspace Rule-making. Emory Law Journal, 45(3), 911.
56. Rizal, M., & Yani, Y. (2016). Cybersecurity Policy and Its Implementation in Indonesia. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 4(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v4i1.967
57. Sassen, S. (2000). Women’s Burden: Counter-geographies of Globalization and the Feminization of Survival. Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board, 52(2), 503–524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357763
58. Setiyawan, A. (2019). NATIONAL CYBERSECURITY POLICY IN THE U.S AND INDONESIA. UNTAG Law Review, 3(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.36356/ulrev.v3i1.1071
59. Tay, K. L. (2023). ASEAN Cyber-security Cooperation: Towards a Regional Emergency- response Framework. The International Institute or Strategic Studies, June, 6–7.
60. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. UNODC, 119–128. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_Chapter5.pdf
61. UNODC. (2019). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. In unodc.org. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking.html
62. Weiss, M. S. (2015). Human Trafficking and Forced Labor. ABA Journal of Labor & Employment Law, 31(1), 1–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26410780

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

How to cite

Azzahidi, I., & Ali Muhammad. (2024). The ASEAN cyber cooperation forming cybersecurity regime on human trafficking. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, (| Accepted Articles). https://doi.org/10.31893/multiscience.2025393

[1] Álvarez, J. G. (2022). The impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Human Trafficking. Esthinktank. https://esthinktank.com/2022/10/12/the-impact-of-information-and-communication-technologies-on-human-trafficking/

[2] Alwan, H. B. (2019). National cyber governance awareness policy and framework. International Journal of Legal Information, 47(2), 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/jli.2019.22

[3] ASEAN. (2015). ASEAN Plan of Action Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ASEAN-Convention-Against-Trafficking-in-Persons-Especially-Women-and-Children-Plan.pdf

[4] ASEAN act. (2022). ASEAN Trafficking in Persons Data, Baseline Repor. https://www.aseanact.org/resources/baselinereport/

[5] Australian Aid. (2024). Strengthening legal cooperation on transnational trafficking in persons cases. Australian Aid. https://www.aseanact.org/story/ilc-workshop/

[6] Bouché, V. (2015). A Report on the Use of Technology to Recruit, Groom, & Sell Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victons. Thorn, January. https://www.thorn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Survivor_Survey_r5.pdf

[7] Deibert, R. J. (2018). Toward a human-centric approach to cybersecurity. Ethics and International Affairs, 32(4), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679418000618

[8] Dennis, M. A. (2019). Cybercrime: Definition, Statistics, & Examples. Britannica.Com; Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/cybercrime

[9] Freetheslaves.net. (n.d.). Modern Slavery. Freetheslave.Net. Retrieved March 28, 2024, from http://www.freetheslaves.net/about-slavery/faqs-glossary/

[10] Gallagher, A. T. (2009). Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Firm Ground? A Response to James Hathaway. Virginia Journal of International Law, 49(4). https://ssrn.com/abstract=1409816

[11] Harknett, R. J., & Stever, J. A. (2011). The New Policy World of Cybersecurity. Public Administration Review, 71(3), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02366.x

[12] Kaye, M. (2003). The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants’ Human Rights. Anti-Slavery International.

[13] KOMINFO. (2020). Silabus Pelatihan Cyber Security for Government Balai Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi , Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia.

[14] Lisa Denney, Alffram, H., Domingo, P., & Jesperson, S. (2024). ASEAN action on countering trafficking in persons and forced labour: Constraints and opportunities. Odi.Org. https://odi.org/en/publications/asean-action-on-countering-trafficking-in-persons-and-forced-labour-constraints-and-opportunities/

[15] Martinus, M. (2024, February 20). Tackling technology abuse and human trafficking in ASEAN. Eastasiaforum. https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1708441200

[16] Mcpherson, P. (2023). Trafficking for cyber fraud an increasingly globalised crime, Interpol says. Reuters; Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/cybersecurity/trafficking-cyber-fraud-an-increasingly-globalised-crime-interpol-says-2023-12-08/

[17] Moore, R. (2010). Cybercrime: Investigating High -Technology Computer Crime. Routledge.

[18] Peterson, M. J. (2012). International Regimes as Concept. E-International Relations, 1–6. https://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/21/international-regimes-as-concept/

[19] Prakash, A., & Potoski, M. (2006). Racing to the Bottom? Trade, Environmental Governance, and ISO 14001. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00188.x

[20] Putri, A. R., & Sari, V. P. S. P. (2021). ASEAN Consensus on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers sebagai Rezim Perlindungan Pekerja Migran Berketerampilan Rendah di ASEAN. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 3(2), 242. https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v3i2.33497

[21] Rahayu, D. S., & Azzahidi, I. R. (2022). the Implementation of Cybersecurity in the United States Foreign Policy After the Russian Hack (2016-2020). Journal of International Relations, 48–61. https://unimuda.e-journal.id/jurnalhubunganinternasional/article/view/3476

[22] Ramadhan, I. (2022). ASEAN Consensus and Forming Cybersecurity Regulation in Southeast Asia. August. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.31-3-2022.2320684

[23] Reddick, J. (2023). Hundreds of thousands trafficked into cyber scamming in Southeast Asia, UN says. The Record Media. https://therecord.media/human-trafficking-cyber-slavery-asia-un-report

[24] Reidenberg, J. (1996). Governing Network and Cyberspace Rule-making. Emory Law Journal, 45(3), 911.

[25] Rizal, M., & Yani, Y. (2016). Cybersecurity Policy and Its Implementation in Indonesia. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 4(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v4i1.967

[26] Sassen, S. (2000). Women’s Burden: Counter-geographies of Globalization and the Feminization of Survival. Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board, 52(2), 503–524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357763

[27] Setiyawan, A. (2019). NATIONAL CYBERSECURITY POLICY IN THE U.S AND INDONESIA. UNTAG Law Review, 3(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.36356/ulrev.v3i1.1071

[28] Tay, K. L. (2023). ASEAN Cyber-security Cooperation: Towards a Regional Emergency- response Framework. The International Institute or Strategic Studies, June, 6–7.

[29] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. UNODC, 119–128. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_Chapter5.pdf

[30] UNODC. (2019). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. In unodc.org. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking.html

[31] Weiss, M. S. (2015). Human Trafficking and Forced Labor. ABA Journal of Labor & Employment Law, 31(1), 1–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26410780

[32] Álvarez, J. G. (2022). The impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Human Trafficking. Esthinktank. https://esthinktank.com/2022/10/12/the-impact-of-information-and-communication-technologies-on-human-trafficking/

[33] Alwan, H. B. (2019). National cyber governance awareness policy and framework. International Journal of Legal Information, 47(2), 70–89. https://doi.org/10.1017/jli.2019.22

[34] ASEAN. (2015). ASEAN Plan of Action Against Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children. https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ASEAN-Convention-Against-Trafficking-in-Persons-Especially-Women-and-Children-Plan.pdf

[35] ASEAN act. (2022). ASEAN Trafficking in Persons Data, Baseline Repor. https://www.aseanact.org/resources/baselinereport/

[36] Australian Aid. (2024). Strengthening legal cooperation on transnational trafficking in persons cases. Australian Aid. https://www.aseanact.org/story/ilc-workshop/

[37] Bouché, V. (2015). A Report on the Use of Technology to Recruit, Groom, & Sell Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Victons. Thorn, January. https://www.thorn.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Survivor_Survey_r5.pdf

[38] Deibert, R. J. (2018). Toward a human-centric approach to cybersecurity. Ethics and International Affairs, 32(4), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679418000618

[39] Dennis, M. A. (2019). Cybercrime: Definition, Statistics, & Examples. Britannica.Com; Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/cybercrime

[40] Freetheslaves.net. (n.d.). Modern Slavery. Freetheslave.Net. Retrieved March 28, 2024, from http://www.freetheslaves.net/about-slavery/faqs-glossary/

[41] Gallagher, A. T. (2009). Human Rights and Human Trafficking: Quagmire or Firm Ground? A Response to James Hathaway. Virginia Journal of International Law, 49(4). https://ssrn.com/abstract=1409816

[42] Harknett, R. J., & Stever, J. A. (2011). The New Policy World of Cybersecurity. Public Administration Review, 71(3), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2011.02366.x

[43] Kaye, M. (2003). The Migration-Trafficking Nexus: Combating Trafficking Through the Protection of Migrants’ Human Rights. Anti-Slavery International.

[44] KOMINFO. (2020). Silabus Pelatihan Cyber Security for Government Balai Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi , Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika Republik Indonesia.

[45] Lisa Denney, Alffram, H., Domingo, P., & Jesperson, S. (2024). ASEAN action on countering trafficking in persons and forced labour: Constraints and opportunities. Odi.Org. https://odi.org/en/publications/asean-action-on-countering-trafficking-in-persons-and-forced-labour-constraints-and-opportunities/

[46] Martinus, M. (2024, February 20). Tackling technology abuse and human trafficking in ASEAN. Eastasiaforum. https://doi.org/10.59425/eabc.1708441200

[47] Mcpherson, P. (2023). Trafficking for cyber fraud an increasingly globalised crime, Interpol says. Reuters; Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/technology/cybersecurity/trafficking-cyber-fraud-an-increasingly-globalised-crime-interpol-says-2023-12-08/

[48] Moore, R. (2010). Cybercrime: Investigating High -Technology Computer Crime. Routledge.

[49] Peterson, M. J. (2012). International Regimes as Concept. E-International Relations, 1–6. https://www.e-ir.info/2012/12/21/international-regimes-as-concept/

[50] Prakash, A., & Potoski, M. (2006). Racing to the Bottom? Trade, Environmental Governance, and ISO 14001. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 350–364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00188.x

[51] Putri, A. R., & Sari, V. P. S. P. (2021). ASEAN Consensus on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of Migrant Workers sebagai Rezim Perlindungan Pekerja Migran Berketerampilan Rendah di ASEAN. Padjadjaran Journal of International Relations, 3(2), 242. https://doi.org/10.24198/padjir.v3i2.33497

[52] Rahayu, D. S., & Azzahidi, I. R. (2022). the Implementation of Cybersecurity in the United States Foreign Policy After the Russian Hack (2016-2020). Journal of International Relations, 48–61. https://unimuda.e-journal.id/jurnalhubunganinternasional/article/view/3476

[53] Ramadhan, I. (2022). ASEAN Consensus and Forming Cybersecurity Regulation in Southeast Asia. August. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.31-3-2022.2320684

[54] Reddick, J. (2023). Hundreds of thousands trafficked into cyber scamming in Southeast Asia, UN says. The Record Media. https://therecord.media/human-trafficking-cyber-slavery-asia-un-report

[55] Reidenberg, J. (1996). Governing Network and Cyberspace Rule-making. Emory Law Journal, 45(3), 911.

[56] Rizal, M., & Yani, Y. (2016). Cybersecurity Policy and Its Implementation in Indonesia. JAS (Journal of ASEAN Studies), 4(1), 61. https://doi.org/10.21512/jas.v4i1.967

[57] Sassen, S. (2000). Women’s Burden: Counter-geographies of Globalization and the Feminization of Survival. Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board, 52(2), 503–524. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24357763

[58] Setiyawan, A. (2019). NATIONAL CYBERSECURITY POLICY IN THE U.S AND INDONESIA. UNTAG Law Review, 3(1), 71. https://doi.org/10.36356/ulrev.v3i1.1071

[59] Tay, K. L. (2023). ASEAN Cyber-security Cooperation: Towards a Regional Emergency- response Framework. The International Institute or Strategic Studies, June, 6–7.

[60] United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. (2020). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. UNODC, 119–128. https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/tip/2021/GLOTiP_2020_Chapter5.pdf

[61] UNODC. (2019). Traffickers Use of the Internet; Digital Hunting Fields. In unodc.org. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-Trafficking/Human-Trafficking.html

[62] Weiss, M. S. (2015). Human Trafficking and Forced Labor. ABA Journal of Labor & Employment Law, 31(1), 1–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26410780

Abstract

References

How to cite