Role of seaweed extract and vermicompost application on the morphology, yield, phytochemical, and elemental composition of cauliflower plants

Ghuncha Kamal Tofiq

doi:10.31893/multiscience.2025322

Keywords:

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis

Abstract

In recent years, the extensive use of agrochemicals for crop production and protection has adversely affected crop productivity, soil health, and the environment. Organic amendments have emerged as promising alternatives to enhance both soil and plant health. This greenhouse study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of seaweed extract and vermicompost, individually and in combination, on the morphology, yield, phytochemicals, and elemental composition of cauliflower plants. Seaweed extract (2 kg/ha) was applied 21 days after transplanting, while vermicompost was incorporated into the soil around the root zone at rates of 7.5 and 15 tons/ha before planting. The experiment was arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. Compared with the other treatments, F5 (seaweed extract combined with vermicompost at a rate of 15 tons/ha) significantly improved plant morphology; yield components; and nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium contents. F1 (seaweed extract alone) yielded the highest antioxidant activity (TAA) (3.18 μg/g FW) and iron content (280.6 ppm), whereas F2 (7.5 tons/ha vermicompost) resulted in the highest total phenolic content (TPC) (35.49 μg GAE/g FW) and potassium (2.79%) levels. According to the results, the control had the lowest values in this study. These outcomes highlight the potential of using organic amendments and biostimulants to increase crop traits, improve the nutritional quality of plants, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Consequently, the combination of seaweed extract and vermicompost may serve as an effective strategy for improving the growth and quality of cauliflower, contributing to environmentally friendly and economically viable production systems.
References
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2. Ahmed, G. O., Halshoy, H. S., Mahmood, C. H., & Hama, J. R. (2024). Titanium nanoparticle and humic acid applications improve seed germination, growth development, and phytochemical contents of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) plants. BioNanoScience, 1–12.
3. Ali, O., Ramsubhag, A., & Jayaraman, J. (2021). Biostimulant properties of seaweed extracts in plants: Implications towards sustainable crop production. Plants, 10(3), 531.
4. Ashour, M., Hassan, S. M., Elshobary, M. E., Ammar, G. A., Gaber, A., Alsanie, W. F., Mansour, A. T., & El-Shenody, R. (2021). Impact of commercial seaweed liquid extract (TAM®) biostimulant and its bioactive molecules on growth and antioxidant activities of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum). Plants, 10(6), 1045.
5. Battacharyya, D., Babgohari, M. Z., Rathor, P., & Prithiviraj, B. (2015). Seaweed extracts as biostimulants in horticulture. Scientia Horticulturae, 196, 39–48.
6. Bottinelli, N., Henry-des-Tureaux, T., Hallaire, V., Mathieu, J., Benard, Y., Tran, T. D., & Jouquet, P. (2010). Earthworms accelerate soil porosity turnover under watering conditions. Geoderma, 156(1–2), 43–47.
7. Bulgari, R., Franzoni, G., & Ferrante, A. (2019). Biostimulants application in horticultural crops under abiotic stress conditions. Agronomy, 9(6), 306.
8. Canellas, L. P., & Olivares, F. L. (2014). Physiological responses to humic substances as plant growth promoter. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 1, 1–11.
9. Carrasco-Gil, S., Hernandez-Apaolaza, L., & Lucena, J. J. (2018). Effect of several commercial seaweed extracts in the mitigation of iron chlorosis of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Plant Growth Regulation, 86(3), 401–411.
10. Chahal, H. S., Singh, S., Dhillon, I. S., & Kaur, S. (2019). Effect of integrated nitrogen management on macronutrient availability under cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 8, 1623–1633.
11. Craigie, J. S. (2011). Seaweed extract stimuli in plant science and agriculture. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23, 371–393.
12. Di Mola, I., Cozzolino, E., Ottaiano, L., Giordano, M., Rouphael, Y., Colla, G., & Mori, M. (2019). Effect of vegetal-and seaweed extract-based biostimulants on agronomical and leaf quality traits of plastic tunnel-grown baby lettuce under four regimes of nitrogen fertilization. Agronomy, 9(10), 571.
13. Ebrahimi, M., Souri, M. K., Mousavi, A., & Sahebani, N. (2021). Biochar and vermicompost improve growth and physiological traits of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under deficit irrigation. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 8, 1–14.
14. El Boukhari, M. E. M., Barakate, M., Bouhia, Y., & Lyamlouli, K. (2020). Trends in seaweed extract based biostimulants: Manufacturing process and beneficial effect on soil-plant systems. Plants, 9(3), 359.
15. Elmer, P. (1996). Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectroscopy. The Perkin-Elmer Corporation, 132–142.
16. El-Saady, W., & Omar, G. F. (2018). Effect of some inorganic NPK fertilization treatments on cauliflower. Journal of Plant Production, 9(12), 1215–1222.
17. Fan, D., Hodges, D. M., Critchley, A. T., & Prithiviraj, B. (2013). A commercial extract of brown macroalga (Ascophyllum nodosum) affects yield and the nutritional quality of spinach in vitro. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 44(12), 1873–1884.
18. Ghaderiardakani, F., Collas, E., Damiano, D. K., Tagg, K., Graham, N. S., & Coates, J. C. (2019). Effects of green seaweed extract on Arabidopsis early development suggest roles for hormone signalling in plant responses to algal fertilisers. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1983.
19. Halpern, M., Bar-Tal, A., Ofek, M., Minz, D., Muller, T., & Yermiyahu, U. (2015). The use of biostimulants for enhancing nutrient uptake. Advances in Agronomy, 130, 141–174.
20. Halshoy, H. S., & Sadik, S. K. (2024). Impact of training methods and biostimulant applications on sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) yield and nutritional values: Under greenhouse condition. Horticultural Plant Journal.
21. Halshoy, H., Mahmood, A., & Tofiq, G. (2023). Effect of plant biostimulants on growth, yield and some mineral composition of broccoli plants (Brassica oleracea var. italica). Tikrit Journal for Agricultural Sciences, 23(1), 130–140.
22. Hawall, I., Raheem, S. M., & Tofiq, G. K. (2018). Growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. corato) as affected by humic acid application. Journal of Plant Production, 9(9), 739–741.
23. Ibrahim, A., Maduro-Dias, C., Halshoy, H., Borba, A., & Nunes, H. (2024). Optimizing nutritional value and biological profile of non-conventional forages for animal feeding by utilizing sodium hydroxide. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, 6(11), 2024235–2024235.
24. Islam, S., Das, K., & Datta, S. (2021). Effect of vermicompost and farmyard manure on performance of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.). Journal of Crop and Weed, 17(3), 246–249.
25. Jahan, F. N., Shahjalal, A., Paul, A. K., Mehraj, H., & Jamal Uddin, A. (2014). Efficacy of vermicompost and conventional compost on growth and yield of cauliflower. Bangladesh Research Publications Journal, 10(1), 33–38.
26. Kakbra, R. F., Sulaiman, S. M., & Tofiq, G. K. (2023). Impact of biostimulants on nutrients status, yield components and fruit quality of cucumber plants grown under greenhouse conditions. Publishing House College of Agriculture and Forestry, 4th International Agricultural Conference, 507–526.
27. Khan, W., Rayirath, U. P., Subramanian, S., Jithesh, M. N., Rayorath, P., Hodges, D. M., Critchley, A. T., Craigie, J. S., Norrie, J., & Prithiviraj, B. (2009). Seaweed extracts as biostimulants of plant growth and development. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 28, 386–399.
28. Lim, S. L., Wu, T. Y., Lim, P. N., & Shak, K. P. Y. (2015). The use of vermicompost in organic farming: Overview, effects on soil and economics. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95(6), 1143–1156.
29. Lola-Luz, T., Hennequart, F., & Gaffney, M. (2014). Effect on yield, total phenolic, total flavonoid and total isothiocyanate content of two broccoli cultivars (Brassica oleraceae var italica) following the application of a commercial brown seaweed extract (Ascophyllum nodosum). Agricultural and Food Science, 23(1), 28–37.
30. Luján-Hidalgo, M. C., Gómez-Hernández, D. E., Villalobos-Maldonado, J. J., Abud-Archila, M., Montes-Molina, J. A., Enciso-Saenz, S., Ruiz-Valdiviezo, V. M., & Gutiérrez-Miceli, F. A. (2017). Effects of vermicompost and vermiwash on plant, phenolic content, and anti-oxidant activity of Mexican pepperleaf (Piper auritum Kunth) cultivated in phosphate rock potting media. Compost Science and Utilization, 25(2), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657X.2016.1255239
31. Mahmood, A. K., Omar, S. J., & Halshoy, H. S. (2021). The impact of (Alga Mix) seaweed and garlic extraction on growth and yield of cauliflower. Euphrates Journal of Agricultural Science, 13(3).
32. Mohammed, A. A., Söylemez, S., & Sarhan, T. Z. (2022). Effect of biofertilizers, seaweed extract and inorganic fertilizer on growth and yield of lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. longifolia L.). Harran Tarım ve Gıda Bilimleri Dergisi, 26(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.29050/harranziraat.990879
33. Mughunth, R., Velmurugan, S., Mohanalakshmi, M., & Vanitha, K. (2024). A review of seaweed extract's potential as a biostimulant to enhance growth and mitigate stress in horticulture crops. Scientia Horticulturae, 334, 113312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2023.113312
34. Namazi, E., Lack, S., & Nejad, E. F. (2015). Effect of vermicompost and chemical nitrogen fertilizer application on the various functioning of maize seeds. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 3(3), 261–268.
35. Ogbede, S., Saidu, A., Kabiru, A., & Busari, M. (2015). Nutrient and anti-nutrient compositions of Brassica oleracea Var. Capitata L. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 5(3), 19–25.
36. Priyadarshini, V., & Madhanakumari, P. (2021). Effect of biostimulants on the yield of bush bean (Lablab purpureus var. typicus). Annals of Plant and Soil Research, 23, 66–70.
37. Raheem, S. M., Al-Jaf, H. I., & Tofiq, G. K. (2018). Influence of foliar and soil application of humic acid on growth and yield of lettuce. Euphrates Journal of Agricultural Science, 10(2), 199–204.
38. Rehman, S. U., De Castro, F., Aprile, A., Benedetti, M., & Fanizzi, F. P. (2023). Vermicompost: Enhancing plant growth and combating abiotic and biotic stress. Agronomy, 13(4), 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13041134
39. Rekha, G. S., Kaleena, P. K., Elumalai, D., Srikumaran, M. P., & Maheswari, V. N. (2018). Effects of vermicompost and plant growth enhancers on the exo-morphological features of Capsicum annum (Linn.) Hepper. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 7, 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-018-0197-8
40. Shams, A., & Morsy, N. M. (2019). Nitrogen sources and algae extract as candidates for improving the growth, yield and quality traits of broccoli plants. Journal of Plant Production, 10(5), 399–407.
41. Sinha, R. K., Herat, S., Valani, D., & Chauhan, K. (2010). Earthworms–the environmental engineers: Review of vermiculture technologies for environmental management and resource development. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, 10(3–4), 265–292. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGENVI.2010.037110
42. Stirk, W. A., Tarkowská, D., Turečová, V., Strnad, M., & Van Staden, J. (2014). Abscisic acid, gibberellins and brassinosteroids in Kelpak®, a commercial seaweed extract made from Ecklonia maxima. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26, 561–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0060-1
43. Tahir, N. A.-R., Rasul, K. S., Lateef, D. D., & Grundler, F. M. (2022). Effects of oak leaf extract, biofertilizer, and soil containing oak leaf powder on tomato growth and biochemical characteristics under water stress conditions. Agriculture, 12(12), 2082. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122082
44. Wong, W. S., Zhong, H. T., Cross, A. T., & Yong, J. W. H. (2020). Plant biostimulants in vermicomposts: Characteristics and plausible mechanisms. In The Chemical Biology of Plant Biostimulants (pp. 155–180). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817659-0.00007-7
45. Y Attallah, S., F Mohamed, M., & F Omar, G. (2021). Impact of seaweed extract, chelated manganese and some chemical substances on growth parameters and yield components of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 52(3), 101–111.
46. Yassen, A., Essa, E., & Zaghloul, S. (2019). The role of vermicompost and foliar spray of Spirulina platensis extract on vegetative growth, yield and nutrition status of lettuce plant under sandy soil. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 14, 1–7.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

How to cite

Tofiq, G. K. (2024). Role of seaweed extract and vermicompost application on the morphology, yield, phytochemical, and elemental composition of cauliflower plants. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, 7(7), 2025322. https://doi.org/10.31893/multiscience.2025322

[1] Abbaoui, B., Lucas, C. R., Riedl, K. M., Clinton, S. K., & Mortazavi, A. (2018). Cruciferous vegetables, isothiocyanates, and bladder cancer prevention. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research, 62(18), 1800079.

[2] Ahmed, G. O., Halshoy, H. S., Mahmood, C. H., & Hama, J. R. (2024). Titanium nanoparticle and humic acid applications improve seed germination, growth development, and phytochemical contents of lettuce (Lactuca sativa) plants. BioNanoScience, 1–12.

[3] Ali, O., Ramsubhag, A., & Jayaraman, J. (2021). Biostimulant properties of seaweed extracts in plants: Implications towards sustainable crop production. Plants, 10(3), 531.

[4] Ashour, M., Hassan, S. M., Elshobary, M. E., Ammar, G. A., Gaber, A., Alsanie, W. F., Mansour, A. T., & El-Shenody, R. (2021). Impact of commercial seaweed liquid extract (TAM®) biostimulant and its bioactive molecules on growth and antioxidant activities of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum). Plants, 10(6), 1045.

[5] Battacharyya, D., Babgohari, M. Z., Rathor, P., & Prithiviraj, B. (2015). Seaweed extracts as biostimulants in horticulture. Scientia Horticulturae, 196, 39–48.

[6] Bottinelli, N., Henry-des-Tureaux, T., Hallaire, V., Mathieu, J., Benard, Y., Tran, T. D., & Jouquet, P. (2010). Earthworms accelerate soil porosity turnover under watering conditions. Geoderma, 156(1–2), 43–47.

[7] Bulgari, R., Franzoni, G., & Ferrante, A. (2019). Biostimulants application in horticultural crops under abiotic stress conditions. Agronomy, 9(6), 306.

[8] Canellas, L. P., & Olivares, F. L. (2014). Physiological responses to humic substances as plant growth promoter. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 1, 1–11.

[9] Carrasco-Gil, S., Hernandez-Apaolaza, L., & Lucena, J. J. (2018). Effect of several commercial seaweed extracts in the mitigation of iron chlorosis of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Plant Growth Regulation, 86(3), 401–411.

[10] Chahal, H. S., Singh, S., Dhillon, I. S., & Kaur, S. (2019). Effect of integrated nitrogen management on macronutrient availability under cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.). International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 8, 1623–1633.

[11] Craigie, J. S. (2011). Seaweed extract stimuli in plant science and agriculture. Journal of Applied Phycology, 23, 371–393.

[12] Di Mola, I., Cozzolino, E., Ottaiano, L., Giordano, M., Rouphael, Y., Colla, G., & Mori, M. (2019). Effect of vegetal-and seaweed extract-based biostimulants on agronomical and leaf quality traits of plastic tunnel-grown baby lettuce under four regimes of nitrogen fertilization. Agronomy, 9(10), 571.

[13] Ebrahimi, M., Souri, M. K., Mousavi, A., & Sahebani, N. (2021). Biochar and vermicompost improve growth and physiological traits of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under deficit irrigation. Chemical and Biological Technologies in Agriculture, 8, 1–14.

[14] El Boukhari, M. E. M., Barakate, M., Bouhia, Y., & Lyamlouli, K. (2020). Trends in seaweed extract based biostimulants: Manufacturing process and beneficial effect on soil-plant systems. Plants, 9(3), 359.

[15] Elmer, P. (1996). Analytical methods for atomic absorption spectroscopy. The Perkin-Elmer Corporation, 132–142.

[16] El-Saady, W., & Omar, G. F. (2018). Effect of some inorganic NPK fertilization treatments on cauliflower. Journal of Plant Production, 9(12), 1215–1222.

[17] Fan, D., Hodges, D. M., Critchley, A. T., & Prithiviraj, B. (2013). A commercial extract of brown macroalga (Ascophyllum nodosum) affects yield and the nutritional quality of spinach in vitro. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 44(12), 1873–1884.

[18] Ghaderiardakani, F., Collas, E., Damiano, D. K., Tagg, K., Graham, N. S., & Coates, J. C. (2019). Effects of green seaweed extract on Arabidopsis early development suggest roles for hormone signalling in plant responses to algal fertilisers. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 1983.

[19] Halpern, M., Bar-Tal, A., Ofek, M., Minz, D., Muller, T., & Yermiyahu, U. (2015). The use of biostimulants for enhancing nutrient uptake. Advances in Agronomy, 130, 141–174.

[20] Halshoy, H. S., & Sadik, S. K. (2024). Impact of training methods and biostimulant applications on sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum) yield and nutritional values: Under greenhouse condition. Horticultural Plant Journal.

[21] Halshoy, H., Mahmood, A., & Tofiq, G. (2023). Effect of plant biostimulants on growth, yield and some mineral composition of broccoli plants (Brassica oleracea var. italica). Tikrit Journal for Agricultural Sciences, 23(1), 130–140.

[22] Hawall, I., Raheem, S. M., & Tofiq, G. K. (2018). Growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. corato) as affected by humic acid application. Journal of Plant Production, 9(9), 739–741.

[23] Ibrahim, A., Maduro-Dias, C., Halshoy, H., Borba, A., & Nunes, H. (2024). Optimizing nutritional value and biological profile of non-conventional forages for animal feeding by utilizing sodium hydroxide. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, 6(11), 2024235–2024235.

[24] Islam, S., Das, K., & Datta, S. (2021). Effect of vermicompost and farmyard manure on performance of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.). Journal of Crop and Weed, 17(3), 246–249.

[25] Jahan, F. N., Shahjalal, A., Paul, A. K., Mehraj, H., & Jamal Uddin, A. (2014). Efficacy of vermicompost and conventional compost on growth and yield of cauliflower. Bangladesh Research Publications Journal, 10(1), 33–38.

[26] Kakbra, R. F., Sulaiman, S. M., & Tofiq, G. K. (2023). Impact of biostimulants on nutrients status, yield components and fruit quality of cucumber plants grown under greenhouse conditions. Publishing House College of Agriculture and Forestry, 4th International Agricultural Conference, 507–526.

[27] Khan, W., Rayirath, U. P., Subramanian, S., Jithesh, M. N., Rayorath, P., Hodges, D. M., Critchley, A. T., Craigie, J. S., Norrie, J., & Prithiviraj, B. (2009). Seaweed extracts as biostimulants of plant growth and development. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 28, 386–399.

[28] Lim, S. L., Wu, T. Y., Lim, P. N., & Shak, K. P. Y. (2015). The use of vermicompost in organic farming: Overview, effects on soil and economics. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 95(6), 1143–1156.

[29] Lola-Luz, T., Hennequart, F., & Gaffney, M. (2014). Effect on yield, total phenolic, total flavonoid and total isothiocyanate content of two broccoli cultivars (Brassica oleraceae var italica) following the application of a commercial brown seaweed extract (Ascophyllum nodosum). Agricultural and Food Science, 23(1), 28–37.

[30] Luján-Hidalgo, M. C., Gómez-Hernández, D. E., Villalobos-Maldonado, J. J., Abud-Archila, M., Montes-Molina, J. A., Enciso-Saenz, S., Ruiz-Valdiviezo, V. M., & Gutiérrez-Miceli, F. A. (2017). Effects of vermicompost and vermiwash on plant, phenolic content, and anti-oxidant activity of Mexican pepperleaf (Piper auritum Kunth) cultivated in phosphate rock potting media. Compost Science and Utilization, 25(2), 95–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/1065657X.2016.1255239

[31] Mahmood, A. K., Omar, S. J., & Halshoy, H. S. (2021). The impact of (Alga Mix) seaweed and garlic extraction on growth and yield of cauliflower. Euphrates Journal of Agricultural Science, 13(3).

[32] Mohammed, A. A., Söylemez, S., & Sarhan, T. Z. (2022). Effect of biofertilizers, seaweed extract and inorganic fertilizer on growth and yield of lettuce (Lactuca sativa var. longifolia L.). Harran Tarım ve Gıda Bilimleri Dergisi, 26(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.29050/harranziraat.990879

[33] Mughunth, R., Velmurugan, S., Mohanalakshmi, M., & Vanitha, K. (2024). A review of seaweed extract's potential as a biostimulant to enhance growth and mitigate stress in horticulture crops. Scientia Horticulturae, 334, 113312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2023.113312

[34] Namazi, E., Lack, S., & Nejad, E. F. (2015). Effect of vermicompost and chemical nitrogen fertilizer application on the various functioning of maize seeds. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences, 3(3), 261–268.

[35] Ogbede, S., Saidu, A., Kabiru, A., & Busari, M. (2015). Nutrient and anti-nutrient compositions of Brassica oleracea Var. Capitata L. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy, 5(3), 19–25.

[36] Priyadarshini, V., & Madhanakumari, P. (2021). Effect of biostimulants on the yield of bush bean (Lablab purpureus var. typicus). Annals of Plant and Soil Research, 23, 66–70.

[37] Raheem, S. M., Al-Jaf, H. I., & Tofiq, G. K. (2018). Influence of foliar and soil application of humic acid on growth and yield of lettuce. Euphrates Journal of Agricultural Science, 10(2), 199–204.

[38] Rehman, S. U., De Castro, F., Aprile, A., Benedetti, M., & Fanizzi, F. P. (2023). Vermicompost: Enhancing plant growth and combating abiotic and biotic stress. Agronomy, 13(4), 1134. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy13041134

[39] Rekha, G. S., Kaleena, P. K., Elumalai, D., Srikumaran, M. P., & Maheswari, V. N. (2018). Effects of vermicompost and plant growth enhancers on the exo-morphological features of Capsicum annum (Linn.) Hepper. International Journal of Recycling of Organic Waste in Agriculture, 7, 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40093-018-0197-8

[40] Shams, A., & Morsy, N. M. (2019). Nitrogen sources and algae extract as candidates for improving the growth, yield and quality traits of broccoli plants. Journal of Plant Production, 10(5), 399–407.

[41] Sinha, R. K., Herat, S., Valani, D., & Chauhan, K. (2010). Earthworms–the environmental engineers: Review of vermiculture technologies for environmental management and resource development. International Journal of Global Environmental Issues, 10(3–4), 265–292. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJGENVI.2010.037110

[42] Stirk, W. A., Tarkowská, D., Turečová, V., Strnad, M., & Van Staden, J. (2014). Abscisic acid, gibberellins and brassinosteroids in Kelpak®, a commercial seaweed extract made from Ecklonia maxima. Journal of Applied Phycology, 26, 561–567. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-013-0060-1

[43] Tahir, N. A.-R., Rasul, K. S., Lateef, D. D., & Grundler, F. M. (2022). Effects of oak leaf extract, biofertilizer, and soil containing oak leaf powder on tomato growth and biochemical characteristics under water stress conditions. Agriculture, 12(12), 2082. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12122082

[44] Wong, W. S., Zhong, H. T., Cross, A. T., & Yong, J. W. H. (2020). Plant biostimulants in vermicomposts: Characteristics and plausible mechanisms. In The Chemical Biology of Plant Biostimulants (pp. 155–180). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817659-0.00007-7

[45] Y Attallah, S., F Mohamed, M., & F Omar, G. (2021). Impact of seaweed extract, chelated manganese and some chemical substances on growth parameters and yield components of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 52(3), 101–111.

[46] Yassen, A., Essa, E., & Zaghloul, S. (2019). The role of vermicompost and foliar spray of Spirulina platensis extract on vegetative growth, yield and nutrition status of lettuce plant under sandy soil. Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 14, 1–7.

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