Life cycle assessment of eco-brick production using PET particle reinforced epoxy resin composites

Okka Adiyanto; Effendi  Mohamad; Rosidah Jaafar; Muhammad Faishal

doi:10.31893/multiscience.2023023

Keywords:

Abstract

The process of urbanisation contributes to the growth of waste generation and causes environmental pollution. One of the most common plastic waste is polyethylene terephthalate (PET). This plastic waste is often used as mixed material in construction. The use of life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a possible tool to assess the sustainability of a product in the long term. After analysing the latest literature, it was found that the study of PET waste in building materials is one of the sustainable alternatives for waste reduction. This research contributes to the improvement of sustainability in alternative building materials through LCA. A gate-to-gate approach is adopted in this research. LCA Calculations for the production of eco-bricks were carried out in accordance with ISO 14044. GaBi software was used to identify and quantify impacts within the system boundaries. The calculations were based on the EDIP 2003 method for assessing impacts. The results show that the use of epoxy resin and PET as raw materials for eco-tiles has an impact on ozone formation (OF) of 118 m2 UES*ppm*hours, which is due to the use of epoxy resin chemicals as adhesives in the production of eco-bricks. Eco-bricks made of PET and epoxy resin have better compressive strength than other materials. The addition of epoxy resin adhesive can increase the compressive strength of the eco-bricks by 50%. Despite the advantages of using epoxy resin and PET in eco-bricks, there are many uncertainties about their environmental impact. It can be concluded that the use of epoxy resin and PET particles in the production of eco-bricks does not pose excessive environmental risks and their use as alternative mixtures for the production of eco-bricks does not lead to a significant reduction in the environmental profile.
References
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4. Akinyele, J. O., Igba, U. T., Ayorinde, T. O., & Jimoh, P. O. (2020). Structural efficiency of burnt clay bricks containing waste crushed glass and polypropylene granules. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 13. DOI:10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00404
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6. Bakalár, T., Pavolová, H., Hajduová, Z., Lacko, R., & Kyšeľa, K. (2021). Metal recovery from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash as a tool of circular economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 302. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126977
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8. Bhairappanavar, S., Liu, R., & Shakoor, A. (2021). Eco-friendly dredged material-cement bricks. Construction and Building Materials, 271(xxxx), 121524. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121524
9. del Rey Castillo, E., Almesfer, N., Saggi, O., & Ingham, J. M. (2020). Light-weight concrete with artificial aggregate manufactured from plastic waste. Construction and Building Materials, 265, 120199. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120199
10. Deriszadeh, A., Shahraki, F., Kalhori, D. M., & Jazani, O. M. (2019). Epoxy/GO nanocomposite adhesives reinforced with waste blends of PET/GTR: Evaluation of mechanical properties. Progress in Organic Coatings, 136(July), 105292. DOI:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.105292
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12. Gregori, A., Mercuri, M., Angiolilli, M., & Pathirage, M. (2022). Simulating defects in brick masonry panels subjected to compressive loads. Engineering Structures, 263(April), 114-333. DOI:10.1016/j.engstruct.2022.114333
13. Hossain, M. U., Ng, S. T., Antwi-Afari, P., & Amor, B. (2020). Circular economy and the construction industry: Existing trends, challenges and prospective framework for sustainable construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 130(June), 109-948. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2020.109948
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18. Lundin, M., Bengtsson, M., & Molander, S. (2000). Life Cycle Assessment of Wastewater Systems: Influence of System Boundaries and Scale on Calculated Environmental Loads. Environemnetal Science and Technology, 34(1), 180–186.
19. Magnusson, T., Zanatta, H., Larsson, M., Kanda, W., & Hjelm, O. (2022). Circular economy, varieties of capitalism and technology diffusion: Anaerobic digestion in Sweden and Paraná. Journal of Cleaner Production, 335(December 2021), 130-300. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130300
20. Mahdaoui, M., Hamdaoui, S., Ait Msaad, A., Kousksou, T., El Rhafiki, T., Jamil, A., & Ahachad, M. (2021). Building bricks with phase change material (PCM): Thermal performances. Construction and Building Materials, 269(xxxx), 121-315. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121315
21. ML, Li., HW, Huang., RB, Mo., XX, Sheng., X, Jiang., & XY, Zhang. (2021). Single-step exfoliation, acidification and covalent functionalization of α-zirconium phosphate for enhanced anticorrosion of waterborne epoxy coatings. Surfaces and Interfaces, 23(October 2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100887
22. More, A. S., Tarade, A., & Anant, A. (2014). Assessment of suitability of Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash burnt clay bricks. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4(7), 1–2.
23. Muñoz, P., Mendívil, M. A., Letelier, V., & Morales, M. P. (2019). Thermal and mechanical properties of fired clay bricks made by using grapevine shoots as pore forming agent. Influence of particle size and percentage of replacement. Construction and Building Materials, 224, 639–658. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.066
24. Nichols, J., & Roachanakanan, K. (2015). The Economics and Methods of Brick Manufacture : a Comparison of USA to Asian Practices. Canadian MAsonry Symposium, June 2009. DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4845.6000
25. Paluvai, N. R., Mohanty, S., & Nayak, S. K. (2014). Synthesis and Modifications of Epoxy Resins and Their Composites: A Review. Polymer - Plastics Technology and Engineering, 53(16), 1723–1758. DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2014.919658
26. Pradhan, S., Tiwari, B. R., Kumar, S., & Barai, S. V. (2019). Comparative LCA of recycled and natural aggregate concrete using Particle Packing Method and conventional method of design mix. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228, 679–691. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.328
27. Ramos Huarachi, D. A., Gonçalves, G., de Francisco, A. C., Canteri, M. H. G., & Piekarski, C. M. (2020). Life cycle assessment of traditional and alternative bricks: A review. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 80(November 2019), 106-335. DOI:10.1016/j.eiar.2019.106335
28. Rashid, K., Haq, E. U., Kamran, M. S., Munir, N., Shahid, A., & Hanif, I. (2019). Experimental and finite element analysis on thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks reinforced with fibers. Construction and Building Materials, 221, 190–199. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.055
29. Taaffe, J., O’Sullivan, S., Rahman, M. E., & Pakrashi, V. (2014). Experimental characterisation of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) bottle Eco-bricks. Materials and Design, 60, 50–56. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.045
30. Tabatabaei, M., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Yang, Y., Aghbashlo, M., Lam, S. S., Montgomery, H., & Peng, W. (2021). Exergy intensity and environmental consequences of the medical face masks curtailing the COVID-19 pandemic: Malign bodyguard? Journal of Cleaner Production, 313(March), 127-880. DOI:1016/j.jclepro.2021.127880
31. U., S., M., D., K., M., & H., J. (1997). ORWARE - A simulation model for organic waste handling systems. Part 2: Case study and simulation results. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 21(1), 39–54. DOI: 10.1016/S0921-3449(97)00021-9
32. Yue, Y., Abdelsalam, M., Khater, A., & Ghazy, M. (2022). A comparative life cycle assessment of asphalt mixtures modified with a novel composite of diatomite powder and lignin fiber. Construction and Building Materials, 323(December 2021), 126-608. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126608
33. Zhang, X., & Biswas, W. K. (2021). Development of eco-efficient bricks – A life cycle assessment approach. Journal of Building Engineering, 42(March), 102-429. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102429
34. Zhao, W., & Yang, Q. (2022). Performance characterization and life cycle assessment of semi-flexible pavement after composite modification of cement-based grouting materials by desulfurization ash , fly ash , and rubber powder. Construction and Building Materials, 359(September), 129-549. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129549
35. Zhao, W., & Yang, Q. (2023). Life cycle assessment and multi-index performance evaluation of semi-flexible pavement after composite modification by using fly ash , rubber particles , warm mixing asphalt and recycled asphalt pavement. Construction and Building Materials, 364(November 2022), 129-945. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129945

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

How to cite

Adiyanto, O., Mohamad , E. ., Jaafar, R., & Faishal, M. (2023). Life cycle assessment of eco-brick production using PET particle reinforced epoxy resin composites. Multidisciplinary Science Journal, 5(3), 2023023. https://doi.org/10.31893/multiscience.2023023

[1] Abbasi, Z., Jazani, O. M., & Sohrabian, M. (2021). Designing of high-performance epoxy adhesive with recycled polymers and silica nano particles (SNPs) in epoxy/carbon fiber composite-steel bonded joints: Mechanical properties, thermal stability and toughening mechanisms. Journal of the Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineers, 123, 310–327. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2021.05.016

[2] Ahmed, I. M., & Tsavdaridis, K. D. (2018). Life cycle assessment ( LCA ) and cost ( LCC ) studies of lightweight composite fl ooring systems. Journal of Building Engineering, 20(May), 624–633. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2018.09.013

[3] Akinyele, J. O., Igba, U. T., & Adigun, B. G. (2020). Effect of waste PET on the structural properties of burnt bricks. Scientific African, 7, e00301. DOI:10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00301

[4] Akinyele, J. O., Igba, U. T., Ayorinde, T. O., & Jimoh, P. O. (2020). Structural efficiency of burnt clay bricks containing waste crushed glass and polypropylene granules. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 13. DOI:10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00404

[5] Askham, C. (2011). Environmental product development: Replacement of an epoxy-based coating by a polyester-based coating. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 16(8), 819–828. DOI: 10.1007/s11367-011-0302-x

[6] Bakalár, T., Pavolová, H., Hajduová, Z., Lacko, R., & Kyšeľa, K. (2021). Metal recovery from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash as a tool of circular economy. Journal of Cleaner Production, 302. DOI:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126977

[7] Barros, M. M., de Oliveira, M. F. L., da Conceição Ribeiro, R. C., Bastos, D. C., & de Oliveira, M. G. (2020). Ecological bricks from dimension stone waste and polyester resin. Construction and Building Materials, 232, 117252. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117252

[8] Bhairappanavar, S., Liu, R., & Shakoor, A. (2021). Eco-friendly dredged material-cement bricks. Construction and Building Materials, 271(xxxx), 121524. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121524

[9] del Rey Castillo, E., Almesfer, N., Saggi, O., & Ingham, J. M. (2020). Light-weight concrete with artificial aggregate manufactured from plastic waste. Construction and Building Materials, 265, 120199. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120199

[10] Deriszadeh, A., Shahraki, F., Kalhori, D. M., & Jazani, O. M. (2019). Epoxy/GO nanocomposite adhesives reinforced with waste blends of PET/GTR: Evaluation of mechanical properties. Progress in Organic Coatings, 136(July), 105292. DOI:10.1016/j.porgcoat.2019.105292

[11] Galan-Marin, C., Rivera-Gomez, C., & Garcia-Martinez, A. (2016). Use of natural-fiber bio-composites in construction versus traditional solutions: Operational and embodied energy assessment. Materials, 9(6). DOI:10.3390/ma9060465

[12] Gregori, A., Mercuri, M., Angiolilli, M., & Pathirage, M. (2022). Simulating defects in brick masonry panels subjected to compressive loads. Engineering Structures, 263(April), 114-333. DOI:10.1016/j.engstruct.2022.114333

[13] Hossain, M. U., Ng, S. T., Antwi-Afari, P., & Amor, B. (2020). Circular economy and the construction industry: Existing trends, challenges and prospective framework for sustainable construction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 130(June), 109-948. DOI:10.1016/j.rser.2020.109948

[14] Khasreen, M. M., Banfill, P. F. G., & Menzies, G. F. (2009). Life-cycle assessment and the environmental impact of buildings: A review. Sustainability, 1(3), 674–701. DOI: 10.3390/su1030674

[15] Khoo, H. H. (2019). LCA of plastic waste recovery into recycled materials, energy and fuels in Singapore. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 145(November 2017), 67–77. DOI: 10.1016/j.resconrec.2019.02.010

[16] La Rosa, A. D., Banatao, D. R., Pastine, S. J., Latteri, A., & Cicala, G. (2016). Recycling treatment of carbon fibre/epoxy composites: Materials recovery and characterization and environmental impacts through life cycle assessment. Composites Part B: Engineering, 104, 17–25. DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesb.2016.08.015

[17] Lemesle, C., Frémiot, J., Beaugendre, A., Casetta, M., Bellayer, S., Duquesne, S., Schuller, A. S., & Jimenez, M. (2020). Life cycle assessment of multi-step versus one-step coating processes using oil or bio-based resins. Journal of Cleaner Production, 242. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118527

[18] Lundin, M., Bengtsson, M., & Molander, S. (2000). Life Cycle Assessment of Wastewater Systems: Influence of System Boundaries and Scale on Calculated Environmental Loads. Environemnetal Science and Technology, 34(1), 180–186.

[19] Magnusson, T., Zanatta, H., Larsson, M., Kanda, W., & Hjelm, O. (2022). Circular economy, varieties of capitalism and technology diffusion: Anaerobic digestion in Sweden and Paraná. Journal of Cleaner Production, 335(December 2021), 130-300. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.130300

[20] Mahdaoui, M., Hamdaoui, S., Ait Msaad, A., Kousksou, T., El Rhafiki, T., Jamil, A., & Ahachad, M. (2021). Building bricks with phase change material (PCM): Thermal performances. Construction and Building Materials, 269(xxxx), 121-315. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121315

[21] ML, Li., HW, Huang., RB, Mo., XX, Sheng., X, Jiang., & XY, Zhang. (2021). Single-step exfoliation, acidification and covalent functionalization of α-zirconium phosphate for enhanced anticorrosion of waterborne epoxy coatings. Surfaces and Interfaces, 23(October 2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.surfin.2020.100887

[22] More, A. S., Tarade, A., & Anant, A. (2014). Assessment of suitability of Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash burnt clay bricks. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4(7), 1–2.

[23] Muñoz, P., Mendívil, M. A., Letelier, V., & Morales, M. P. (2019). Thermal and mechanical properties of fired clay bricks made by using grapevine shoots as pore forming agent. Influence of particle size and percentage of replacement. Construction and Building Materials, 224, 639–658. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.066

[24] Nichols, J., & Roachanakanan, K. (2015). The Economics and Methods of Brick Manufacture : a Comparison of USA to Asian Practices. Canadian MAsonry Symposium, June 2009. DOI: 10.13140/2.1.4845.6000

[25] Paluvai, N. R., Mohanty, S., & Nayak, S. K. (2014). Synthesis and Modifications of Epoxy Resins and Their Composites: A Review. Polymer - Plastics Technology and Engineering, 53(16), 1723–1758. DOI: 10.1080/03602559.2014.919658

[26] Pradhan, S., Tiwari, B. R., Kumar, S., & Barai, S. V. (2019). Comparative LCA of recycled and natural aggregate concrete using Particle Packing Method and conventional method of design mix. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228, 679–691. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.328

[27] Ramos Huarachi, D. A., Gonçalves, G., de Francisco, A. C., Canteri, M. H. G., & Piekarski, C. M. (2020). Life cycle assessment of traditional and alternative bricks: A review. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 80(November 2019), 106-335. DOI:10.1016/j.eiar.2019.106335

[28] Rashid, K., Haq, E. U., Kamran, M. S., Munir, N., Shahid, A., & Hanif, I. (2019). Experimental and finite element analysis on thermal conductivity of burnt clay bricks reinforced with fibers. Construction and Building Materials, 221, 190–199. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.055

[29] Taaffe, J., O’Sullivan, S., Rahman, M. E., & Pakrashi, V. (2014). Experimental characterisation of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) bottle Eco-bricks. Materials and Design, 60, 50–56. DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2014.03.045

[30] Tabatabaei, M., Hosseinzadeh-Bandbafha, H., Yang, Y., Aghbashlo, M., Lam, S. S., Montgomery, H., & Peng, W. (2021). Exergy intensity and environmental consequences of the medical face masks curtailing the COVID-19 pandemic: Malign bodyguard? Journal of Cleaner Production, 313(March), 127-880. DOI:1016/j.jclepro.2021.127880

[31] U., S., M., D., K., M., & H., J. (1997). ORWARE - A simulation model for organic waste handling systems. Part 2: Case study and simulation results. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 21(1), 39–54. DOI: 10.1016/S0921-3449(97)00021-9

[32] Yue, Y., Abdelsalam, M., Khater, A., & Ghazy, M. (2022). A comparative life cycle assessment of asphalt mixtures modified with a novel composite of diatomite powder and lignin fiber. Construction and Building Materials, 323(December 2021), 126-608. DOI: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126608

[33] Zhang, X., & Biswas, W. K. (2021). Development of eco-efficient bricks – A life cycle assessment approach. Journal of Building Engineering, 42(March), 102-429. DOI: 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102429

[34] Zhao, W., & Yang, Q. (2022). Performance characterization and life cycle assessment of semi-flexible pavement after composite modification of cement-based grouting materials by desulfurization ash , fly ash , and rubber powder. Construction and Building Materials, 359(September), 129-549. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129549

[35] Zhao, W., & Yang, Q. (2023). Life cycle assessment and multi-index performance evaluation of semi-flexible pavement after composite modification by using fly ash , rubber particles , warm mixing asphalt and recycled asphalt pavement. Construction and Building Materials, 364(November 2022), 129-945. DOI:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129945

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