A comprehensive review of the use of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) in the development of the  COVID-19 vaccine and medical applications

Roslina Aida Rahimi; Saifudin Hafiz Yahaya; Mohd Shukor Salleh

doi:10.31893/multirev.2023028

Keywords:

Abstract

Salt, specifically sodium chloride (NaCl), is the most common and essential salt used in chemical industries, food production and medical applications. This review extensively looked into the use of salt in medical applications and the development of vaccines, including the recently developed SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. This review also discussed several salt-producing systems to further understand the source of salt. This study focused on several main fields of medical use of salt: saline solution content, respiratory filtration, hyponatremia, ophthalmology, dermatology, and vaccine development studies. Several studies identified that NaCl could deactivate viruses as observed, NaCl is part of the COVID-19 vaccine excipient for Pfizer-BioNTech and AstraZeneca. Further applications of sodium chloride should be explored due to its various advantages in the medical field.
References
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How to cite

Rahimi, R. A., Yahaya, S. H., & Salleh, M. S. (2023). A comprehensive review of the use of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) in the development of the COVID-19 vaccine and medical applications. Multidisciplinary Reviews, 6(3), 2023028. https://doi.org/10.31893/multirev.2023028

[1] Abdul MG (2021) Mixing of Sputnik V and Astrazeneca COVID-19 Vaccines. Japanese Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 6:1-3.

[2] Al-Karaghouli A Kazmerski LL (2013) Energy consumption and water production cost of conventional and renewable-energy-powered desalination processes. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 24:343-356.

[3] An D Li, K Rowe DK, Diaz MCH, Griffin EF, Beavis AC, Johnson SK, Padykula I, Jones CA, Briggs K, Li G (2021) Protection of K18-hACE2 mice and ferrets against SARS-CoV-2 challenge by a single-dose mucosal immunization with a parainfluenza virus 5–based COVID-19 vaccine. Science advances 7:eabi5246.

[4] Art JF, Vander Straeten A, Dupont-Gillain CC (2017) NaCl strongly modifies the physicochemical properties of aluminum hydroxide vaccine adjuvants. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 517: 26-233.

[5] Asghar A, Tahir Z, Ghias, A, Iftikhar U, Ahmad TJ (2019) Efficacy and safety of intralesional normal saline in atrophic acne scars. Annals of King Edward Medical University 25:1-15.

[6] Atkins P, Jones L (2005) Chemical principles (3rd edition). New York: Freeman.

[7] Baden LR, El Sahly HM, Essink B, Kotloff K, Frey S, Novak R, Diemert D, Spector SA, Rouphael N, Creech CB, McGettigan J (2020) Efficacy and Safety of the mRNA-1273 SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine. New England Journal of Medicine 384:403-416.

[8] Badugu R, Szmacinski H, Reece EA, Jeng BH, Lakowicz JR (2020) Fluorescent contact lens for continuous non-invasive measurements of sodium and chloride ion concentrations in tears. Analytical Biochemistry 608:1-10.

[9] Barnes CO, Jette CA, Abernathy ME, Dam KMA, Esswein SR, Gristick HB, Malyutin AG, Sharaf NG, Huey-Tubman KE, Lee YE, Robbiani DF (2020) SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody structures inform therapeutic strategies. Nature 588:682-687.

[10] Beatty AL, Peyser ND, Butcher XE, Cocohoba JM, Lin F, Olgin JE, Pletcher MJ, Marcus GM (2021) Analysis of COVID-19 Vaccine Type and Adverse Effects Following Vaccination. JAMA Network Open 4:e2140364-e2140364.

[11] Bishop JM, Maldonado RL, Garry RF, Allen PT, Bose HR, Waite M R (1976) Effect of medium of lowered NaCl concentration on virus release and protein synthesis in cells infected with reticuloendotheliosis virus. Journal of Virology 17:446-452.

[12] Brown TL, LeMay HE, Bursten BE, BrunauerLS (2005) Chemistry: the central science (10th edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

[13] Carracedo G, Villa-Collar C, Martin-Gil A, Serramito M, Santamaría L (2018) Comparison between viscous teardrops and saline solution to fill orthokeratology contact lenses before overnight wear. Eye & Contact Lens 44:S307-S311.

[14] Chatterjee U, Chakraborty A, Naskar S, Saha B, Bandyapadhyay B, Shee S (2021) Efficacy of normal saline nasal spray and gargle on SARS-CoV-2 for prevention of COVID-19 pneumonia. Science Open 7:7-20.

[15] Cirillo M, Capasso G, Di Leo VA, De Santo NG (1994) A history of salt. American Journal of Nephrology 14:426-431.

[16] Constantinou S, Cheng PH, Holmes D, Mcgarrity P, Abouharb A, Simms HN (2021) Prevention of hyponatraemia with prophylactic oral sodium chloride in good grade aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage. Interdisciplinary Neurosurgery 25:1-10.

[17] Crommelin DJ, Volkin DB, Hoogendoorn KH, Lubiniecki AS, Jiskoot W (2021) The science is there: key considerations for stabilizing viral vector-based Covid-19 vaccines. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 110:627-634.

[18] Crundwell FK (2019) The impact of surface charge on the ionic dissociation of common salt (NaCl). Chemical Engineering Science 205:174-180.

[19] Dagan N, Barda N, Kepten E, Miron O, Perchik S, Katz MA, Hernán MA, Lipsitch M, Reis B, Balicer RD (2021) BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 Vaccine in a Nationwide Mass Vaccination Setting. New England Journal of Medicine 24:1412-1423.

[20] Dillon RC, Merchan C, Altshuler D, Papadopoulos J (2018) Incidence of adverse events during peripheral administration of sodium chloride 3%. Journal of Intensive Care Medicine 33:48-53.

[21] El-Amawy HS, Sarsik SM (2021) Saline in dermatology: a literature review. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology 20:2040-2051.

[22] Evans L, Miller JE (2002) Sweeping gas membrane desalination using commercial hydrophobic hollow fiber membranes (No. SAND2002-0138). Sandia National Lab. (SNL-NM), Albuquerque, NM (United States); Sandia National Lab.(SNL-CA), Livermore, CA (United States).

[23] Fiolet T, Kherabi Y, MacDonald CJ, Ghosn J, Peiffer-Smadja N (2021) Comparing COVID-19 vaccines for their characteristics, efficacy and effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern: A narrative review. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 25:1-13.

[24] Forouzandeh P, O'Dowd K, Pillai SC (2021) Face masks and respirators in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic: An overview of the standards and testing methods. Safety Science 133:1-15.

[25] Götzfried F, Kondorosy E (2009) Recrystallization Process for the Upgrading of Rock and Solar Salts. 9th International Symposium on Salt 1-17.

[26] Gupta M (2020) Immunization by Self-Attenuated Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2. Annals of Respiration and Circulation 1:1-11.

[27] Hou GL, Liu CW, Li RZ, Xu HG, Gao YQ, Zheng WJ (2017) Emergence of solvent-separated Na+–Cl–ion pair in saltwater: Photoelectron spectroscopy and theoretical calculations. The journal of Physical Chemistry Letters 8:13-20.

[28] Huijghebaert S, Hoste L, Vanham G (2021) Essentials in saline pharmacology for nasal or respiratory hygiene in times of COVID-19. European journal of Clinical Pharmacology 77:1275-1293.

[29] Jacob P, Dow C, Lasker SS, Drake WM, Chowdhury TA (2019) Hyponatraemia in primary care. BMJ 365:1-14.

[30] Jamkhande A, Khairnar MR, Gavali N, Patil Y, Kapare SS, Bhosale KP (2021) A review of approved COVID-19 vaccines. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny 72:245-252.

[31] Jia C, Liu Y, Li L, Song J, Wang H, Liu Z, Li Z, Li B, Fang M, Wu H (2020) A foldable all-ceramic air filter paper with high efficiency and high-temperature resistance. Nano Letters 20:4993-5000.

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