Who assesses morality, and how? A systematic review of research gaps in Akidah Akhlak assessment

Andi Kurnia Muin; Wasis; Rivo Panji Yudha

doi:10.31893/multirev.2026491

Keywords:

Abstract

Moral and character assessment has gained increasing attention in educational research, yet systematic examination of who assesses morality and how assessment is operationalized remains limited. This systematic review addresses these questions with particular attention to Akidah Akhlak assessment marginalization within Islamic education. Following PRISMA 2024 guidelines, we systematically searched Scopus for peer-reviewed publications (2015-2025) addressing moral, character, and values-based assessment. From 443 retrieved records, 187 articles underwent detailed thematic synthesis examining assessor configurations, methodological approaches, and research gaps. Bibliometric analysis characterized publication trends and disciplinary patterns. The review revealed fivefold growth in moral assessment publications (18 in 2015 to 90 in 2025), occurring predominantly within secular Western frameworks. Only one study (0.2%) explicitly addressed Akidah Akhlak assessment—where Akidah refers to Islamic creed and belief system, and Akhlak refers to Islamic moral character and ethics. Methodologically, quantitative survey-based approaches dominated (30.0%), with minimal authentic assessment methods (rubrics 0.5%, portfolios 0.5%). Critically, 98.6% of studies failed to specify assessor identity, revealing fundamental ambiguity regarding who evaluates moral learning. Multirater configurations were entirely absent. Akidah Akhlak marginalization reflects structural dynamics including database indexing biases and disciplinary concentration favoring psychology over religious education. Current practices demonstrate pronounced gaps across conceptual integration, methodological diversity, assessor specification, and cultural-epistemological grounding. The field requires reconceptualization of moral assessment from technical measurement to relational practice, developing humanistic frameworks honoring epistemological diversity while maintaining systematic rigor. Future research must address multi-actor assessment models, technology-enhanced platforms, and culturally grounded approaches synthesizing cognitive, affective, and behavioral dimensions within theologically coherent frameworks.
References
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How to cite

Muin, A. K., Wasis, & Yudha, R. P. (2026). Who assesses morality, and how? A systematic review of research gaps in Akidah Akhlak assessment. Multidisciplinary Reviews, 9(11), 2026491. https://doi.org/10.31893/multirev.2026491

[1] Alazmi, A. A. (2025). School leadership in context: The influence of Islamic values and beliefs on Kuwaiti school principal practices. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 28(3), 618–638. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2023.2292148

[2] Amirudin, N., Anwar, K., Ifadah, A. S., Sya’bani, M. A. Y., & Basri, H. (2025). Analysis of learning evaluation issues affecting educational goal achievement in Islamic education. International Research Journal of Multidisciplinary Scope, 6(4), 299–312. https://doi.org/10.47857/irjms.2025.v06i04.05800

[3] Arif, M. (2025). Development of local history learning model based on value clarification techniques to strengthen ethnic identity. International Journal of Education and Practice, 13(2), 474–491. https://doi.org/10.18488/61.v13i2.4067

[4] Asrial, A., Syahrial, S., Kurniawan, D. A., Aldila, F. T., & Iqbal, M. (2022). Gender and perception: Implementation of web-based character assessment on students’ character outcomes. International Journal of Instruction, 15(4), 311–338. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2022.15418a

[5] Atmaja, L., & Mustopa, R. R. B. C. (2020). Metaphysics in the epistemology: A critical analysis of Islamic and Western philosophical tradition. Afkaruna, 16(1), 22–40. https://doi.org/10.18196/aiijis.2020.0111.22-39

[6] Batdı, V., Elaldı, Ş., Özçelik, C., Semerci, N., & Özkaya, Ö. M. (2024). Evaluation of the effectiveness of critical thinking training on critical thinking skills and academic achievement by using mixed-meta method. Review of Education, 12(3), e70001. https://doi.org/10.1002/rev3.70001

[7] Dawood, I. M. A. (2025). The effectiveness of online assignments as a communication medium in developing religious concepts among university students. Fonseca Journal of Communication, 29(2), 12–31. https://doi.org/10.48047/fjc.29.02.02

[8] Dehghani, Z., Khormaei, F., & Poorseyed, S. M. (2025). The effectiveness of character education on wisdom, academic hope, and prosocial behavior in students. Iranian Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine, 18(1). https://doi.org/10.18502/ijme.v18i20.20165

[9] Fahriany, N. (2025). English reading in Indonesian Islamic boarding schools: Needs and materials. Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam, 8(1), 246–264. https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v8i1.64

[10] Foster, N., & Piacentini, M. (2023). Innovating assessments to measure and support complex skills. In Innovating assessments to measure and support complex skills. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/e5f3e341-en

[11] Gillani, U., & Khan, M. J. (2025). Achieving our highest potential through character development (Husn-i-Akhlaaq): An Islamic perspective on holistic personality development, spiritual growth and human flourishing. Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1569393

[12] Hidayatulloh, A., Romli, K., Syukur, A., & Setiawati, R. (2025). Building the ethical law enforcer: Spiritual mental empowerment and institutional culture drive professionalism and humanism. Journal of Cultural Analysis and Social Change, 10(2), 2651–2668. https://doi.org/10.64753/jcasc.v10i2.1988

[13] Jeffery-Schwikkard, D., Li, J., Nagpal, P., & Lomas, T. (2025). Systematic review of character development in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Positive Psychology, 20(1), 169–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2024.2322464

[14] Kangwa, D., Msambwa, M. M., & Fute, A. (2025). Exploring the factors that promote a balance between academic integrity and the effective use of GenAI tools in higher education: A systematic review. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 41(5), e70109. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.70109

[15] Kulgemeyer, C., Riese, J., Vogelsang, C., Buschhüter, D., Borowski, A., Weißbach, A., Jordans, M., Reinhold, P., & Schecker, H. (2023). How authenticity impacts validity: Developing a model of teacher education assessment and exploring the effects of the digitisation of assessment methods. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-023-01154-y

[16] Kusyk, S., & Schwartz, M. S. (2025). Moral intensity: It is what is, but what is it? A critical review of the literature. Journal of Business Ethics, 200(3), 487–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05869-8

[17] Le, N. T. K., Dung, H. T., & van Hai, T. (2025). The relationship between transformational leadership, organizational culture and employee’s job performance: Mediating role of organizational culture. Quality – Access to Success, 26(209), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.47750/QAS/26.209.07

[18] Mahakwe, G., Johnson, E., Karlsson, K., & Nilsson, S. (2021). A systematic review of self-report instruments for the measurement of anxiety in hospitalized children with cancer. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), Article 1911. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041911

[19] Mohi Ud Din, Q., Tahir, A., Xiaojuan, Y., Alqahtani, S., & Gul, N. (2025). Ethical climate in higher education: The interplay of leadership, moral efficacy, and team cohesion in diverse cultural contexts. Acta Psychologica, 255, Article 104986. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.104986

[20] Navidmanesh, S., Kadkhodaee, M., Ghadirinokabadi, L., & Emamifar, A. (2025). Resolving conceptual and practical gaps in current child well-being models through the holistic well-being model for children. Discover Psychology, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44202-025-00382-z

[21] Rohmad, R., Dharin, A., & Azis, D. K. (2022). Developing self-assessment instruments of affective domain on belief and morality (Aqidah Akhlak) subject in Madrasah Tsanawiyah. Pegem Eğitim ve Öğretim Dergisi, 13(1), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.47750/pegegog.13.01.21

[22] Sellami, I., Amin, H., Ozturk, O., Zaman, A., Sever, S. D., & Tok, E. (2025). Digital, localised and human-centred design makerspaces: Nurturing skills, values and global citizenship for sustainability. Discover Education, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-025-00413-w

[23] Setiawati, E., Fajarwati, A., Koenarso, D. A. P., & Herlida Sari, A. (2025). A framework for justice and integrity in digital character education. In Proceedings of the ICCIT 2025. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCIT65724.2025.11167260

[24] Urbina, S. (2016). Essentials of psychological testing (4th ed.). Wiley.

[25] Vlachopoulos, D., & Makri, A. (2024). A systematic literature review on authentic assessment in higher education: Best practices for the development of 21st century skills, and policy considerations. Studies in Educational Evaluation. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101425

Abstract

References

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