Disease risk modeling and epidemiological status of the important tick-borne disease east coast fever in Tanzania

Swai Emanuel Senyael; Godelieve Lynen; Giuseppe Di  Giulio; Paul Nanaga Sanka; Paul Faustine Mtui

doi:10.31893/avr.2024015

Keywords:

cattle

spatiotemporal

Rhipicephalus appendiculatus

Theileria parva Tanzania

Abstract

In eastern Africa, the eradication of East Coast fever (ECF) caused by Theileria parva is challenging in practice, as it is the heartland of its vector tick Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and has highly favorable climates, free grazing cattle‒buffalo interactions and an increasing problem of acaricide resistance. Improving our understanding of spatiotemporal changes in ECF disease mapping will guide the development of a sustainable approach to ECF control in Tanzania. A national survey was carried out in 21 regions of the Tanzanian mainland and Mafia Island between 1998 and 2001. Simple random sampling was applied to select target villages, and a multistage sampling selection procedure was followed to determine the sample size required for seroprevalence estimates. To avoid the possibility of detecting passively derived colostral antibodies, only indigenous calves aged 6–12 months were enrolled and sampled. A total of 9,400 serum samples collected from the 825 villages visited were assayed with a standard indirect PIM-based Theileria parva enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit. The geographic database was managed with ArcView 3.1 (ESRI), and seroprevalence, endemicity and disease risk maps were generated. With the exceptions of the northern Maasai region and the Rukwa and Mtwara regions in southern zone, most of Tanzania has reached an endemically stable situation for ECF, with relatively large areas in central Tanzania showing "no-disease risk" areas due to the absence of the tick vector Rhipicephalus appendiculatus. This study confirmed that ECF has expanded the distribution of its tick vector Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and has reached an overall balance, resulting in a more stable ECF endemic disease situation. The disease risk maps will contribute to directing the different control options for integrated control, which should support and conserve the state of endemic stability that has been achieved at high costs but can be modified to suit each individual region.
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How to cite

Senyael, S. E., Lynen, G., Giulio, G. D., Sanka, P. N., & Mtui, P. F. (2025). Disease risk modeling and epidemiological status of the important tick-borne disease east coast fever in Tanzania. Applied Veterinary Research, 3(3), 2024015. https://doi.org/10.31893/avr.2024015

[1] Bazarusanga, T., Vercruysse, J., Marcotty, T., & Geysen, D. (2007). Epidemiological studies on theileriosis and the dynamics of Theileria parva infections in Rwanda. Veterinary Parasitology, 143(3-4), 214–221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.09.009

[2] Cannon, R. M., & Roe, R. T. (1982). Livestock disease surveys: A field manual for veterinarians. Bureau of Resource Science, Department of Primary Industry. Australian Government Publishing Services. https://www.scribd.com. Accessed June 2024.

[3] Deem, S. L., Perry, B. D., Katende, J. M., McDermott, J. J., Mahan, S. M., Maloo, S. H., Morzaria, S. P., Musoke, A. J., & Rowlands, G. J. (1993). Variations in prevalence rates of tick-borne diseases in Zebu cattle by agroecological zone: Implications for East Coast fever immunization. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 16(3), 171–187.

[4] Di Giulio, G., Lynen, G., Morzaria, S., Oura, C., & Bishop, R. (2009). Live immunization against East Coast fever—current status. Trends in Parasitology, 25(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2008.11.007

[5] Di Giulio, G., Lynen, G., Ulicky, E., Katende, J., & Morzaria, S. (2000). Use of two different dose rates of oxytetracyclines in East Coast fever immunization in Tanzania. In Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on Tick and Tick-borne Pathogens (pp. 121–123). Institute of Zoology, Bratislava.

[6] Eisler, M. C., Stephen, J. T., Coleman, P. G., Machila, N., & Morton, J. F. (2003). Integrated control of vector-borne diseases of livestock—pyrethroids: Panacea or poison? Trends in Parasitology, 19(8), 341–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4922(03)00164-8

[7] Gachohi, J., Skilton, R., Hansen, F., Ngumi, P., & Kitala, P. (2012). Epidemiology of East Coast fever (Theileria parva infection) in Kenya: Past, present and the future. Parasites & Vectors, 5, 194. https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-3305-5-194

[8] Giblin, J. L. (1990). East Coast fever in socio-historical context: A case study from Tanzania. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 23(3), 401–421.

[9] Gilioli, G., Groppi, M., Vesperoni, M. P., Baumgartner, J., & Gutierrez, A. P. (2009). An epidemiological model of East Coast Fever in African livestock. Ecological Modelling, 220(13-14), 1652–1662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.03.017

[10] Gitau, G. K., Perry, B. D., Katende, J. M., McDermott, J. J., Morzaria, S. P., & Young, A. S. (1997). The prevalence of serum antibodies to tick-borne infections in cattle in smallholder dairy farms in Murang’a District, Kenya: A cross-sectional study. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 30(2), 95–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5877(96)01100-2

[11] Homewood, K., Trench, P., Randall, S., Lynen, G., & Bishop, B. (2006). Livestock health and socioeconomic impacts of a veterinary intervention in Maasailand: Infection-and treatment vaccine against East Coast fever. Agricultural Systems, 89(2-3), 248–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2005.09.004

[12] Jacobsen, P. (1999). Tick and tick-borne disease control projects on Tanzania mainland. In Proceedings of a joint OAU, FAO and ILRAD workshop on Tick and Tick-borne disease control in Eastern, Central and Southern Africa (pp. 92–97). Lilongwe, Malawi.

[13] Kagaruki, L. K., & Loretu, K. (1996). Ticks and tick-borne diseases of Tanzania. In Proceedings of Tanzania Veterinary Association Scientific Conference (pp. 131–145). Arusha, Tanzania.

[14] Kambarage, D. M. (1995). East Coast Fever as a continued constraint to livestock improvement in Tanzania. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 27(3), 145–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02248958

[15] Katende, J. M., Morzaria, S. P., Toye, P., Skilton, R. A., Nene, V., Nkonge, C., & Musoke, A. J. (1998). An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of Theileria parva antibodies in cattle using a recombinant polymorphic immunodominant molecule. Parasitology Research, 84(5), 408–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004360050419

[16] Kelsall, J. E., & Diggle, P. J. (1995). Nonparametric estimation of spatial variation in relative risk. Statistics in Medicine, 14(21-22), 2335–2342. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.4780142106

[17] Kivaria, F. M. (2006). Estimated direct economic costs associated with tick-borne diseases on cattle in Tanzania. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 38(4), 291–299. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-006-4181-2

[18] Kivaria, F. M. (2010). Climate change and the epidemiology of tick-borne diseases of cattle in Africa. The Veterinary Journal, 184(1), 7–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.12.003

[19] Kivaria, F. M., & Noordhuizen, J. P. (2010). Capture-recapture analysis of East Coast fever in smallholder dairy herds. The Veterinary Journal, 184(2), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.01.023

[20] Kivaria, F. M., Ruheta, M. R., Mkonyi, P. A., & Malamsha, P. C. (2007). Epidemiological aspects of bovine theileriosis (East Coast fever) and its control: A preliminary assessment with special reference to Kibaha district, Tanzania. The Veterinary Journal, 173(2), 384–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.08.013

[21] Leta, S., De Clercq, E. M., & Madder, M. (2013). High-resolution predictive mapping for Rhipicephalus appendiculatus (Acari: Ixodidae) in the Horn of Africa. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 60(4), 531–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-013-9670-1

[22] Lynen, G., Melewas, J., Majaliwa, K., Bakuname, C., & Di Giulio, G. (1999). The use of a 30% formulation of long-acting oxytetracycline in East Coast fever immunizations in Tanzania. In S. Mukaratirwa & M. J. Obwolo (Eds.), Animal health and production for development (pp. 367–375). University of Utrecht Press.

[23] Lynen, G., Yrjö-Koskinen, A. E., Bakuname, C., Di Giulio, G., Mlinga, N., Khama, I., Hanks, J., Taylor, N. M., James, A. D., McKeever, D., Peters, A. R., & Rushton, J. (2012). East Coast fever immunization field trial in crossbred dairy cattle in Hanang and Handeni districts in northern Tanzania. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 44(3), 567–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-011-9936-8

[24] Lynen, G., Zeman, P., Bakuname, C., Di Giulio, G., Mtui, P., Sanka, P., & Jongejan, F. (2007). Cattle ticks of economic importance in Tanzania: The genera Rhipicephalus (s.str.) and Amblyomma: Current distribution assessed with GIS and geostatistical modeling based on an extensive field survey and predictive eco-climatic data. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 43(4), 303–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-007-9123-9

[25] Magona, J. W., Walubengo, J., Olaho-Mukani, W., Jonsson, N. N., Welburn, S. W., & Eisler, M. C. (2011). Spatial variation of tick abundance and seroconversion rates of indigenous cattle to Anaplasma marginale, Babesia bigemina and Theileria parva infections in Uganda. Experimental and Applied Acarology, 55(2), 203–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-011-9456-2

[26] Maloo, S. H., Thorpe, W., Kioo, G., Ngumi, P., Rowlands, G. J., & Perry, B. D. (2001). Seroprevalences of vector-transmitted infections of small-holder dairy cattle in coastal Kenya. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 52(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-5877(01)00234-3

[27] Marcellino, W. L., Salih, D. A., Julla, I. I., & El Hussein, A. R. (2012). Seroprevalence of East Coast fever in Central Equatoria State, South Sudan. Veterinaria Italiana, 48(4), 379–385.

[28] Martins, S. B., Di Giulio, G., Lynen, G., Peters, A., & Rushton, J. (2010). Assessing the impact of East Coast fever immunization by the infection and treatment method in Tanzanian pastoralist systems. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 97(3-4), 175–182. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2010.09.018

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